Abstract
Pesticides are a family of compounds which have brought many benefits to mankind in the agricultural, industrial, and health areas, but their toxicities in both humans and animals have always been a concern. Regardless of acute poisonings which are common for some classes of pesticides like organophosphoruses, the association of chronic and sub-lethal exposure to pesticides with a prevalence of some persistent diseases is going to be a phenomenon to which global attention has been attracted. In this review, incidence of various malignant, neurodegenerative, respiratory, reproductive, developmental, and metabolic diseases in relation to different routes of human exposure to pesticides such as occupational, environmental, residential, parental, maternal, and paternal has been systematically criticized in different categories of pesticide toxicities like carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, pulmonotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, developmental toxicity, and metabolic toxicity. A huge body of evidence exists on the possible role of pesticide exposures in the elevated incidence of human diseases such as cancers, Alzheimer, Parkinson, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, asthma, bronchitis, infertility, birth defects, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, diabetes, and obesity. Most of the disorders are induced by insecticides and herbicides most notably organophosphorus, organochlorines, phenoxyacetic acids, and triazine compounds.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdolahi A, van Wijngaarden E, McClean MD, Herrick RF, Allen JG, Ganguly A, Bunin GR (2013) A case–control study of paternal occupational exposures and the risk of childhood sporadic bilateral retinoblastoma. Occup Environ Med 70:372–379. doi:10.1136/oemed-2012-101062
Abdollahi M, Karami-Mohajeri S (2012) A comprehensive review on experimental and clinical findings in intermediate syndrome caused by organophosphate poisoning. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 258:309–314. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2011.11.014
Abdollahi M, Mostafalou S, Pournourmohammadi S, Shadnia S (2004a) Oxidative stress and cholinesterase inhibition in saliva and plasma of rats following subchronic exposure to malathion. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 137:29–34. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2003.11.002
Abdollahi M, Ranjbar A, Shadnia S, Nikfar S, Rezaie A (2004b) Pesticides and oxidative stress: a review. Med Sci Monit 10:141–147
Abdollahi M, Moridani MY, Aruoma OI, Mostafalou S (2014) Oxidative stress in aging. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2014:876834. doi:10.1155/2014/876834
Airaksinen R, Rantakokko P, Eriksson JG, Blomstedt P, Kajantie E, Kiviranta H (2011) Association between type 2 diabetes and exposure to persistent organic pollutants. Diabetes Care 34:1972–1979. doi:10.2337/dc10-2303
Akhgari M, Abdollahi M, Kebryaeezadeh A, Hosseini R, Sabzevari O (2003) Biochemical evidence for free radical-induced lipid peroxidation as a mechanism for subchronic toxicity of malathion in blood and liver of rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 22:205–211
Alavanja MC, Blair A, Masters MN (1990) Cancer mortality in the U.S. flour industry. J Natl Cancer Inst 82:840–848
Alavanja MC et al (2003) Use of agricultural pesticides and prostate cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 157:800–814
Alavanja MC et al (2004) Pesticides and lung cancer risk in the agricultural health study cohort. Am J Epidemiol 160:876–885. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh290
Alavanja MC et al (2014) Non-hodgkin lymphoma risk and insecticide, fungicide and fumigant use in the agricultural health study. PLoS One 9:e109332. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109332
Alguacil J, PANKRAS II Study Group et al (2000) Risk of pancreatic cancer and occupational exposures in Spain. Ann Occup Hyg 44:391–403
Alexander FE et al (2001) Transplacental chemical exposure and risk of infant leukemia with MLL gene fusion. Cancer Res 61:2542–2546
Amr S et al (2015) Pesticides, gene polymorphisms, and bladder cancer among Egyptian agricultural workers. Arch Environ Occup Health 70:19–26. doi:10.1080/19338244.2013.853646
Andersen HR, Debes F, Wohlfahrt-Veje C, Murata K, Grandjean P (2015) Occupational pesticide exposure in early pregnancy associated with sex-specific neurobehavioral deficits in the children at school age. Neurotoxicol Teratol 47:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2014.10.006
Andreotti G et al (2009) Agricultural pesticide use and pancreatic cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort. Int J Cancer 124:2495–2500. doi:10.1002/ijc.24185
Aneck-Hahn NH, Schulenburg GW, Bornman MS, Farias P, de Jager C (2007) Impaired semen quality associated with environmental DDT exposure in young men living in a malaria area in the Limpopo Province. S Afr J Androl 28:423–434. doi:10.2164/jandrol.106.001701
Antwi SO et al (2015) Exposure to environmental chemicals and heavy metals, and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Causes Control 26:1583–1591. doi:10.1007/s10552-015-0652-y
Arbuckle TE, Lin Z, Mery LS (2001) An exploratory analysis of the effect of pesticide exposure on the risk of spontaneous abortion in an Ontario farm population. Environ Health Perspect 109:851–857
Arrebola JP et al (2015) Risk of female breast cancer and serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls: a case-control study in Tunisia. Sci Total Environ 520:106–113. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.045
Ascherio A et al (2006) Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 60:197–203. doi:10.1002/ana.20904
Bachelet D et al (2011) Determinants of serum concentrations of 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls among French women in the CECILE study. Environ Res 111:861–870. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2011.06.001
Bahadar H, Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M (2014) Growing burden of diabetes in Pakistan and the possible role of arsenic and pesticides. J Diabetes Metab Disord 13:117. doi:10.1186/s40200-014-0117-y
Bailey HD et al (2011) Exposure to professional pest control treatments and the risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Int J Cancer 129:1678–1688. doi:10.1002/ijc.25769
Bailey HD et al (2014) Parental occupational pesticide exposure and the risk of childhood leukemia in the offspring: findings from the childhood leukemia international consortium. Int J Cancer 135:2157–2172. doi:10.1002/ijc.28854
Balasubramaniam G, Saoba S, Sarade M, Pinjare S (2013) Case-control study of risk factors for non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Mumbai. India Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 14:775–780
Baldi I et al (2003a) Association between Parkinson’s disease and exposure to pesticides in southwestern France. Neuroepidemiology 22:305–310. doi:10.1159/000071194
Baldi I, Lebailly P, Mohammed-Brahim B, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Brochard P (2003b) Neurodegenerative diseases and exposure to pesticides in the elderly. Am J Epidemiol 157:409–414. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf216
Band PR, Abanto Z, Bert J, Lang B, Fang R, Gallagher RP, Le ND (2011) Prostate cancer risk and exposure to pesticides in British Columbia farmers. Prostate 71:168–183. doi:10.1002/pros.21232
Barry KH et al (2011) Genetic variation in base excision repair pathway genes, pesticide exposure, and prostate cancer risk. Environ Health Perspect 119:1726–1732. doi:10.1289/ehp.1103454
Barry KH et al (2012) Methyl bromide exposure and cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 23:807–818. doi:10.1007/s10552-012-9949-2
Bastos AM, Souza Mdo C, Almeida Filho GL, Krauss TM, Pavesi T, Silva LE (2013) Organochlorine compound levels in fertile and infertile women from Rio de Janeiro. Brazil Arquivos brasileiros de endocrinologia e metabologia 57:346–353
Baumann Kreuziger LM, Tarchand G, Morrison VA (2014) The impact of Agent Orange exposure on presentation and prognosis of patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 55:63–66. doi:10.3109/10428194.2013.794267
Bayrami M, Hashemi T, Malekirad AA, Ashayeri H, Faraji F, Abdollahi M (2012) Electroencephalogram, cognitive state, psychological disorders, clinical symptom, and oxidative stress in horticulture farmers exposed to organophosphate pesticides. Toxicol Ind Health 28:90–96. doi:10.1177/0748233711407243
Beane Freeman LE et al (2005) Cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study cohort exposed to diazinon. Am J Epidemiol 162:1070–1079. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi321
Beard J, Sladden T, Morgan G, Berry G, Brooks L, McMichael A (2003) Health impacts of pesticide exposure in a cohort of outdoor workers. Environ Health Perspect 111:724–730
Beard JD et al (2016) Military service, deployments, and exposures in relation to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis etiology. Environ Int 91:104–115. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2016.02.014
Bener A, Lestringant GG, Beshwari MM, Pasha MA (1999) Respiratory symptoms, skin disorders and serum IgE levels in farm workers. Allerg Immunol 31:52–56
Blair A, Grauman DJ, Lubin JH, Fraumeni JF Jr (1983) Lung cancer and other causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators. J Natl Cancer Inst 71:31–37
Boada LD, Zumbado M, Henriquez-Hernandez LA, Almeida-Gonzalez M, Alvarez-Leon EE, Serra-Majem L, Luzardo OP (2012) Complex organochlorine pesticide mixtures as determinant factor for breast cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in the Canary Islands (Spain). Environ Health 11:28. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-11-28
Boccolini Pde M, Boccolini CS, de Rezende Chrisman R, Markowitz SB, Koifman S, Koifman RJ, Meyer A (2013) Pesticide use and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma mortality in Brazil. Int J Hyg Environ Health 216:461–466. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.03.007
Bonner MR et al (2010) Occupational exposure to terbufos and the incidence of cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 21:871–877. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9514-9
Bonvicini F, Marcello N, Mandrioli J, Pietrini V, Vinceti M (2010) Exposure to pesticides and risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a population-based case-control study. Ann Ist Super Sanita 46:284–287. doi:10.4415/ANN_10_03_10
Bosma H, van Boxtel MP, Ponds RW, Houx PJ, Jolles J (2000) Pesticide exposure and risk of mild cognitive dysfunction. Lancet 356:912–913
Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG (2010) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics 125:e1270–e1277. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-3058
Bouchard MF et al (2011) Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year-old children. Environ Health Perspect 119:1189–1195. doi:10.1289/ehp.1003185
Braun JM et al (2014) Gestational exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and reciprocal social, repetitive, and stereotypic behaviors in 4- and 5-year-old children: the HOME study. Environ Health Perspect 122:513–520. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307261
Brauner EV et al (2012) A prospective study of organochlorines in adipose tissue and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Environ Health Perspect 120:105–111
Bravo MP, Espinosa J, Calero JR (1990) Occupational risk factors for cancer of the larynx in Spain. Neoplasma 37:477–481
Brender JD, Felkner M, Suarez L, Canfield MA, Henry JP (2010) Maternal pesticide exposure and neural tube defects in Mexican Americans. Ann Epidemiol 20:16–22. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.09.011
Brouwer M et al (2015) Occupational exposures and Parkinson’s disease mortality in a prospective Dutch cohort. Occup Environ Med 72:448–455. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-102209
Brown LM et al (1990) Pesticide exposures and other agricultural risk factors for leukemia among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res 50:6585–6591
Brownson RC, Alavanja MC, Chang JC (1993) Occupational risk factors for lung cancer among nonsmoking women: a case-control study in Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes Control 4:449–454
Brucker-Davis F et al (2008) Cryptorchidism at birth in Nice area (France) is associated with higher prenatal exposure to PCBs and DDE, as assessed by colostrum concentrations. Hum Reprod 23:1708–1718. doi:10.1093/humrep/den186
Buckley JD et al (1989) Occupational exposures of parents of children with acute nonlymphocytic leukemia: a report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group. Cancer Res 49:4030–4037
Buckley JD, Meadows AT, Kadin ME, Le Beau MM, Siegel S, Robison LL (2000) Pesticide exposures in children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer 89:2315–2321
Budnik LT, Kloth S, Velasco-Garrido M, Baur X (2012) Prostate cancer and toxicity from critical use exemptions of methyl bromide: environmental protection helps protect against human health risks. Environ Health 11:5. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-11-5
Burdorf A, Brand T, Jaddoe VW, Hofman A, Mackenbach JP, Steegers EA (2011) The effects of work-related maternal risk factors on time to pregnancy, preterm birth and birth weight: the Generation R Study. Occup Environ Med 68:197–204. doi:10.1136/oem.2009.046516
Burns CJ, Beard KK, Cartmill JB (2001) Mortality in chemical workers potentially exposed to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 1945-94: an update. Occup Environ Med 58:24–30
Butterfield PG, Valanis BG, Spencer PS, Lindeman CA, Nutt JG (1993) Environmental antecedents of young-onset Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 43:1150–1158
Buzio L, Tondel M, De Palma G, Buzio C, Franchini I, Mutti A, Axelson O (2002) Occupational risk factors for renal cell cancer. An Italian case-control study. Med Lav 93:303–309
Buzio L et al (2003) Glutathione S-transferases M1–1 and T1–1 as risk modifiers for renal cell cancer associated with occupational exposure to chemicals Occup. Environ Med 60:789–793
Cantor KP, Silberman W (1999) Mortality among aerial pesticide applicators and flight instructors: follow-up from 1965–1988. Am J Ind Med 36:239–247. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0274(199908)36:2<239:AID-AJIM3>3.0.CO;2-V
Cantor KP et al (1992) Pesticides and other agricultural risk factors for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res 52:2447–2455
Carmichael SL et al (2013) Hypospadias and residential proximity to pesticide applications. Pediatrics 132:e1216–e1226. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1429
Carozza SE, Li B, Elgethun K, Whitworth R (2008) Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States. Environ Health Perspect 116:559–565. doi:10.1289/ehp.9967
Celik-Ozenci C et al (2012) Effect of abamectin exposure on semen parameters indicative of reduced sperm maturity: a study on farmworkers in Antalya (Turkey). Andrologia 44:388–395. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0272.2012.01297.x
Cerhan JR, Cantor KP, Williamson K, Lynch CF, Torner JC, Burmeister LF (1998) Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States). Cancer Causes Control 9:311–319
Chamie K, DeVere White RW, Lee D, Ok JH, Ellison LM (2008) Agent Orange exposure, Vietnam War veterans, and the risk of prostate cancer. Cancer 113:2464–2470. doi:10.1002/cncr.23695
Chan DK et al (1998) Genetic and environmental risk factors for Parkinson’s disease in a Chinese population. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:781–784
Chancellor AM, Slattery JM, Fraser H, Warlow CP (1993) Risk factors for motor neuron disease: a case-control study based on patients from the Scottish Motor Neuron Disease Register. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:1200–1206
Chang JW, Chen HL, Su HJ, Liao PC, Lee CC (2012) Biochemical study of retired pentachlorophenol workers with and without following dietary exposure to PCDD/Fs. Chemosphere 88:813–819. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.03.087
Charlier C, Albert A, Herman P, Hamoir E, Gaspard U, Meurisse M, Plomteux G (2003) Breast cancer and serum organochlorine residues. Occup Environ Med 60:348–351
Chen M, Chang CH, Tao L, Lu C (2015) Residential exposure to pesticide during childhood and childhood cancers: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 136:719–729. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-0006
Cheslack-Postava K et al (2013) Maternal serum persistent organic pollutants in the Finnish Prenatal Study of Autism: a pilot study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 38:1–5. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2013.04.001
Chevrier C et al. (2011) Urinary biomarkers of prenatal atrazine exposure and adverse birth outcomes in the PELAGIE birth cohort. Environ Health Perspect 119:1034–1041 doi:10.1289/ehp.1002775
Chevrier C, Warembourg C, Gaudreau E, Monfort C, Le Blanc A, Guldner L, Cordier S (2013) Organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, seafood consumption, and time-to-pregnancy. Epidemiology 24:251–260. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e31827f53ec
Chiu BC, Dave BJ, Blair A, Gapstur SM, Zahm SH, Weisenburger DD (2006) Agricultural pesticide use and risk of t(14;18)-defined subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 108:1363–1369. doi:10.1182/blood-2005-12-008755
Christensen CH et al (2010) Coumaphos exposure and incident cancer among male participants in the Agricultural Health Study (AHS). Environ Health Perspect 118:92–96. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800446
Ciccone G, Mirabelli D, Levis A, Gavarotti P, Rege-Cambrin G, Davico L, Vineis P (1993) Myeloid leukemias and myelodysplastic syndromes: chemical exposure, histologic subtype and cytogenetics in a case-control study. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 68:135–139. doi:10.1016/0165-4608(93)90010-J
Clavel J, Hemon D, Mandereau L, Delemotte B, Severin F, Flandrin G (1996) Farming, pesticide use and hairy-cell leukemia. Scand J Work Environ Health 22:285–293
Cockburn M, Mills P, Zhang X, Zadnick J, Goldberg D, Ritz B (2011) Prostate cancer and ambient pesticide exposure in agriculturally intensive areas in California. Am J Epidemiol 173:1280–1288. doi:10.1093/aje/kwr003
Codru N, Schymura MJ, Negoita S, Akwesasne Task Force on E, Rej R, Carpenter DO (2007) Diabetes in relation to serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated pesticides in adult Native Americans. Environ Health Perspect 115:1442–1447. doi:10.1289/ehp.10315
Coggon D, Ntani G, Harris EC, Jayakody N, Palmer KT (2015) Soft tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides: extended follow-up of a UK cohort. Occup Environ Med 72:435–441. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-102654
Cohn BA et al (2003) DDT and DDE exposure in mothers and time to pregnancy in daughters. Lancet 361:2205–2206. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13776-2
Costello S, Cockburn M, Bronstein J, Zhang X, Ritz B (2009) Parkinson’s disease and residential exposure to maneb and paraquat from agricultural applications in the central valley of California. Am J Epidemiol 169:919–926. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp006
Cox S, Niskar AS, Narayan KM, Marcus M (2007) Prevalence of self-reported diabetes and exposure to organochlorine pesticides among Mexican Americans: Hispanic health and nutrition examination survey, 1982–1984. Environ Health Perspect 115:1747–1752. doi:10.1289/ehp.10258
Dallaire R et al (2012) Cognitive, visual, and motor development of 7-month-old Guadeloupean infants exposed to chlordecone. Environ Res 118:79–85. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2012.07.006
Daniels JL et al (2001) Residential pesticide exposure and neuroblastoma. Epidemiology 12:20–27
Das K, Nag C, Ghosh M (2012) Familial, environmental, and occupational risk factors in development of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. N Am J Med Sci 4:350–355. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.99517
De Fleurian G et al (2009) Occupational exposures obtained by questionnaire in clinical practice and their association with semen quality. J Androl 30:566–579. doi:10.2164/jandrol.108.005918
de Rezende Chrisman R, Koifman S, de Novaes Sarcinelli P, Moreira JC, Koifman RJ, Meyer A (2009) Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil. Int J Hyg Environ Health 212:310–321. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.07.006
De Roos AJ, Zahm SH, Cantor KP, Weisenburger DD, Holmes FF, Burmeister LF, Blair A (2003) Integrative assessment of multiple pesticides as risk factors for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma among men. Occup Environ Med 60:E11
de Siqueira MT, Braga C, Cabral-Filho JE, Augusto LG, Figueiroa JN, Souza AI (2010) Correlation between pesticide use in agriculture and adverse birth outcomes in Brazil: an ecological study. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 84:647–651. doi:10.1007/s00128-010-0027-8
Deapen DM, Henderson BE (1986) A case-control study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Am J Epidemiol 123:790–799
Den Hond E et al (2011) Internal exposure to pollutants and sexual maturation in Flemish adolescents. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 21:224–233. doi:10.1038/jes.2010.2
Dennis LK, Lynch CF, Sandler DP, Alavanja MC (2010) Pesticide use and cutaneous melanoma in pesticide applicators in the agricultural heath study. Environ Health Perspect 118:812–817. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901518
Dich J, Wiklund K (1998) Prostate cancer in pesticide applicators in Swedish agriculture. Prostate 34:100–112
Dick FD et al (2007) Environmental risk factors for Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonism: the Geoparkinson study. Occup Environ Med 64:666–672. doi:10.1136/oem.2006.027003
Ding G et al. (2012) Pyrethroid pesticide exposure and risk of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia in Shanghai. Environ Sci Technol 46:13480–13487. doi:10.1021/es303362a
Dirinck E et al (2011) Obesity and persistent organic pollutants: possible obesogenic effect of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. Obesity 19:709–714. doi:10.1038/oby.2010.133
Donna A et al (1989) Triazine herbicides and ovarian epithelial neoplasms. Scand J Work Environ Health 15:47–53
Duell EJ, Millikan RC, Savitz DA, Newman B, Smith JC, Schell MJ, Sandler DP (2000) A population-based case-control study of farming and breast cancer in North Carolina. Epidemiology 11:523–531
Dugas J, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Martinez D, Iszatt N, Nelson P, Elliott P (2010) Use of biocides and insect repellents and risk of hypospadias. Occup Environ Med 67:196–200. doi:10.1136/oem.2009.047373
Dutheil F, Beaune P, Tzourio C, Loriot MA, Elbaz A (2010) Interaction between ABCB1 and professional exposure to organochlorine insecticides in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 67:739–745. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2010.101
Efird JT et al (2003) Farm-related exposures and childhood brain tumours in seven countries: results from the SEARCH International Brain Tumour Study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 17:201–211
Elbaz A et al (2009) Professional exposure to pesticides and Parkinson disease. Ann Neurol 66:494–504. doi:10.1002/ana.21717
El-Zaemey S, Heyworth J, Fritschi L (2013) Noticing pesticide spray drift from agricultural pesticide application areas and breast cancer: a case-control study. Aust N Z J Pub Health 37:547–555
Engel LS et al (2005) Pesticide use and breast cancer risk among farmers’ wives in the agricultural health study. Am J Epidemiol 161:121–135. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi022
Engel SM et al (2007) Prenatal organophosphate metabolite and organochlorine levels and performance on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale in a multiethnic pregnancy cohort. Am J Epidemiol 165:1397–1404. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm029
Engel SM, Wetmur J, Chen J, Zhu C, Barr DB, Canfield RL, Wolff MS (2011) Prenatal exposure to organophosphates, paraoxonase 1, and cognitive development in childhood. Environ Health Perspect 119:1182–1188. doi:10.1289/ehp.1003183
Eriksson M, Hardell L, Carlberg M, Akerman M (2008) Pesticide exposure as risk factor for non-Hodgkin lymphoma including histopathological subgroup analysis. Int J Cancer 123:1657–1663. doi:10.1002/ijc.23589
Eskenazi B et al (2007) Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environ Health Perspect 115:792–798. doi:10.1289/ehp.9828
Evangelou E, Ntritsos G, Chondrogiorgi M, Kavvoura FK, Hernandez AF, Ntzani EE, Tzoulaki I (2016) Exposure to pesticides and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 91:60–68. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2016.02.013
Everett CJ, Frithsen IL, Diaz VA, Koopman RJ, Simpson WM Jr, Mainous AG 3rd (2007) Association of a polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, a polychlorinated biphenyl, and DDT with diabetes in the 1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Environ Res 103:413–418. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2006.11.002
Fakhri-Bafghi MS, Ghasemi-Niri SF, Mostafalou S, Navaei-Nigjeh M, Baeeri M, Mohammadirad A, Abdollahi M (2016) Protective effect of selenium-based medicines on toxicity of three common organophosphorus compounds in human erythrocytes in vitro. Cell J 17:740–747
Fear NT, Roman E, Reeves G, Pannett B (1998) Childhood cancer and paternal employment in agriculture: the role of pesticides. Br J Cancer 77:825–829
Feychting M, Plato N, Nise G, Ahlbom A (2001) Paternal occupational exposures and childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspect 109:193–196
Figa-Talamanca I, Mearelli I, Valente P, Bascherini S (1993) Cancer mortality in a cohort of rural licensed pesticide users in the province of Rome. Int J Epidemiol 22:579–583
Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longstreth WT Jr, Checkoway H (2005) Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Arch Neurol 62:91–95. doi:10.1001/archneur.62.1.91
Fleming LE, Bean JA, Rudolph M, Hamilton K (1999) Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida. J Occup Environ Med 41:279–288
Flower KB, Hoppin JA, Lynch CF, Blair A, Knott C, Shore DL, Sandler DP (2004) Cancer risk and parental pesticide application in children of Agricultural Health Study participants. Environ Health Perspect 112:631–635
Fong CS, Wu RM, Shieh JC, Chao YT, Fu YP, Kuao CL, Cheng CW (2007) Pesticide exposure on southwestern Taiwanese with MnSOD and NQO1 polymorphisms is associated with increased risk of Parkinson’s disease. Clin Chim Acta 378:136–141. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2006.11.006
Forastiere F et al (1993) Cancer among farmers in central Italy. Scand J Work Environ Health 19:382–389. doi:10.5271/sjweh.1458
Fortenberry GZ et al (2014) Urinary 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPY) in pregnant women from Mexico City: distribution, temporal variability, and relationship with child attention and hyperactivity. Int J Hyg Environ Health 217:405–412. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.07.018
Fortes C et al (2007) The association between residential pesticide use and cutaneous melanoma. Eur J Cancer 43:1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2007.01.013
Freeman LE et al (2011) Atrazine and cancer incidence among pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study (1994–2007). Environ Health Perspect 119:1253–1259. doi:10.1289/ehp.1103561
Frigerio R et al (2006) Chemical exposures and Parkinson’s disease: a population-based case-control study. Mov Disord 21:1688–1692. doi:10.1002/mds.21009
Furby A, Beauvais K, Kolev I, Rivain JG, Sebille V (2010) Rural environment and risk factors of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a case-control study. J Neurol 257:792–798. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5419-5
Gascon M et al (2012) Pre-natal exposure to dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and infant lower respiratory tract infections and wheeze. Eur Respir J 39:1188–1196. doi:10.1183/09031936.00011711
Gascon M, Sunyer J, Martinez D, Guerra S, Lavi I, Torrent M, Vrijheid M (2014) Persistent organic pollutants and children’s respiratory health: the role of cytokines and inflammatory biomarkers. Environ Int 69:133–140. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.04.021
Gasull M, Pumarega J, Tellez-Plaza M, Castell C, Tresserras R, Lee DH, Porta M (2012) Blood concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and prediabetes and diabetes in the general population of Catalonia. Environ Sci Technol 46:7799–7810. doi:10.1021/es300712g
Gatto NM, Cockburn M, Bronstein J, Manthripragada AD, Ritz B (2009) Well-water consumption and Parkinson’s disease in rural California. Environ Health Perspect 117:1912–1918. doi:10.1289/ehp.0900852
Gemmill A, Gunier RB, Bradman A, Eskenazi B, Harley KG (2013) Residential proximity to methyl bromide use and birth outcomes in an agricultural population in California. Environ Health Perspect 121:737–743. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205682
Giannandrea F, Gandini L, Paoli D, Turci R, Figa-Talamanca I (2011) Pesticide exposure and serum organochlorine residuals among testicular cancer patients and healthy controls. J Environ Sci Health Part B Pestic Food Contam Agric Wastes 46:780–787. doi:10.1080/03601234.2012.597704
Giordano F, Dell’Orco V, Giannandrea F, Lauria L, Valente P, Figa-Talamanca I (2006) Mortality in a cohort of pesticide applicators in an urban setting: sixty years of follow-up. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 19:61–65
Glynn AW et al (2003) Organochlorines in Swedish women: determinants of serum concentrations. Environ Health Perspect 111:349–355
Goldman SM et al. (2012) Genetic modification of the association of paraquat and Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 27:1652–1658. doi:10.1002/mds.25216
Gorell JM, Johnson CC, Rybicki BA, Peterson EL, Richardson RJ (1998) The risk of Parkinson’s disease with exposure to pesticides, farming, well water, and rural living. Neurology 50:1346–1350
Greenlee AR, Arbuckle TE, Chyou PH (2003) Risk factors for female infertility in an agricultural region. Epidemiology 14:429–436. doi:10.1097/01.EDE.0000071407.15670.aa
Greenop KR et al (2013) Exposure to pesticides and the risk of childhood brain tumors. Cancer Causes Control 24:1269–1278. doi:10.1007/s10552-013-0205-1
Gunnarsson LG, Bodin L, Soderfeldt B, Axelson O (1992) A case-control study of motor neurone disease: its relation to heritability, and occupational exposures, particularly to solvents. Br J Ind Med 49:791–798
Hancock DB et al (2008) Pesticide exposure and risk of Parkinson’s disease: a family-based case-control study. BMC Neurol 8:6. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-8-6
Hansen MR, Jors E, Lander F, Condarco G, Schlunssen V (2014a) Is cumulated pyrethroid exposure associated with prediabetes? A cross-sectional study. J Agromed 19:417–426. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2014.945708
Hansen S et al (2014b) Maternal concentrations of persistent organochlorine pollutants and the risk of asthma in offspring: results from a prospective cohort with 20 years of follow-up. Environ Health Perspect 122:93–99. doi:10.1289/ehp.1206397
Harari R, Julvez J, Murata K, Barr D, Bellinger DC, Debes F, Grandjean P (2010) Neurobehavioral deficits and increased blood pressure in school-age children prenatally exposed to pesticides. Environ Health Perspect 118:890–896. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901582
Hardell L, Eriksson M (1999) A case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and exposure to pesticides. Cancer 85:1353–1360
Hardell L, Eriksson M, Nordstrom M (2002) Exposure to pesticides as risk factor for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and hairy cell leukemia: pooled analysis of two Swedish case-control studies. Leuk Lymphoma 43:1043–1049
Hayden KM, Norton MC, Darcey D, Ostbye T, Zandi PP, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer KA (2010) Occupational exposure to pesticides increases the risk of incident AD: the Cache County study. Neurology 74:1524–1530. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dd4423
Henneberger PK, Liang X, London SJ, Umbach DM, Sandler DP, Hoppin JA (2014) Exacerbation of symptoms in agricultural pesticide applicators with asthma. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 87:423–432. doi:10.1007/s00420-013-0881-x
Holly EA, Aston DA, Ahn DK, Kristiansen JJ (1992) Ewing’s bone sarcoma, paternal occupational exposure, and other factors. Am J Epidemiol 135:122–129
Hoppin JA, Umbach DM, London SJ, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP (2002) Chemical predictors of wheeze among farmer pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:683–689. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.165.5.2106074
Hoppin JA, Umbach DM, London SJ, Lynch CF, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP (2006a) Pesticides and adult respiratory outcomes in the agricultural health study. Ann NY Acad Sci 1076:343–354. doi:10.1196/annals.1371.044
Hoppin JA, Umbach DM, London SJ, Lynch CF, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP (2006b) Pesticides associated with wheeze among commercial pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 163:1129–1137. doi:10.1093/aje/kwj138
Hoppin JA et al (2007) Pesticide use and chronic bronchitis among farmers in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Ind Med 50:969–979. doi:10.1002/ajim.20523
Hoppin JA, Umbach DM, London SJ, Henneberger PK, Kullman GJ, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP (2008) Pesticides and atopic and nonatopic asthma among farm women in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 177:11–18. doi:10.1164/rccm.200706-821OC
Hoppin JA et al (2009) Pesticide use and adult-onset asthma among male farmers in the Agricultural Health Study. Eur Respir J 34:1296–1303. doi:10.1183/09031936.00005509
Horton MK, Kahn LG, Perera F, Barr DB, Rauh V (2012) Does the home environment and the sex of the child modify the adverse effects of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos on child working memory? Neurotoxicol Teratol 34:534–541. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.07.004
Hu J, Mao Y, White K (2002) Renal cell carcinoma and occupational exposure to chemicals in Canada. Occup Med (Lond) 52:157–164
Ibarluzea J et al (2011) Sociodemographic, reproductive and dietary predictors of organochlorine compounds levels in pregnant women in Spain. Chemosphere 82:114–120. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.09.051
Infante-Rivard C, Labuda D, Krajinovic M, Sinnett D (1999) Risk of childhood leukemia associated with exposure to pesticides and with gene polymorphisms. Epidemiology 10:481–487
Jakszyn P et al (2009) Serum levels of organochlorine pesticides in healthy adults from five regions of Spain. Chemosphere 76:1518–1524. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.05.048
James KA, Hall DA (2015) Groundwater pesticide levels and the association with Parkinson disease. Int J Toxicol 34:266–273. doi:10.1177/1091581815583561
Jamshidi HR, Ghahremani MH, Ostad SN, Sharifzadeh M, Dehpour AR, Abdollahi M (2009) Effects of diazinon on the activity and gene expression of mitochondrial glutamate dehydrogenase from rat pancreatic Langerhans islets. Pes Biochem Physiol 93:23–27
Jansson C, Plato N, Johansson AL, Nyren O, Lagergren J (2006) Airborne occupational exposures and risk of oesophageal and cardia adenocarcinoma. Occup Environ Med 63:107–112. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.022467
Ji BT et al (2001) Occupational exposure to pesticides and pancreatic cancer. Am J Ind Med 39:92–99
Ji G et al. (2011) Effects of non-occupational environmental exposure to pyrethroids on semen quality and sperm DNA integrity in Chinese men. Reprod Toxicol 31:171–176. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.10.005
Jorgensen KT, Jensen MS, Toft GV, Larsen AD, Bonde JP, Hougaard KS (2014) Risk of cryptorchidism among sons of horticultural workers and farmers in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 40:323–330. doi:10.5271/sjweh.3399
Kachuri L et al (2013) Multiple pesticide exposures and the risk of multiple myeloma in Canadian men. Int J Cancer 133:1846–1858. doi:10.1002/ijc.28191
Kamel F et al (2007) Pesticide exposure and self-reported Parkinson’s disease in the agricultural health study. Am J Epidemiol 165:364–374. doi:10.1093/aje/kwk024
Kamel F et al (2012) Pesticide exposure and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurotoxicology 33:457–462. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2012.04.001
Kamel F et al (2014) Dietary fat intake, pesticide use, and Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 20:82–87. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2013.09.023
Kang HK, Dalager NA, Needham LL, Patterson DG Jr, Lees PS, Yates K, Matanoski GM (2006) Health status of Army Chemical Corps Vietnam veterans who sprayed defoliant in Vietnam. Am J Ind Med 49:875–884. doi:10.1002/ajim.20385
Kang D et al (2008) Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to trifluralin in the Agricultural Health Study. Environ Res 107:271–276. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.01.010
Karami S et al (2008) Renal cell carcinoma, occupational pesticide exposure and modification by glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms. Carcinogenesis 29:1567–1571. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgn153
Karami S et al (2013) Pesticide exposure and inherited variants in vitamin d pathway genes in relation to prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22:1557–1566. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-1454
Karami-Mohajeri S, Abdollahi M (2011) Toxic influence of organophosphate, carbamate, and organochlorine pesticides on cellular metabolism of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates: a systematic review. Hum Exp Toxicol 30:1119–1140. doi:10.1177/0960327110388959
Karami-Mohajeri S, Abdollahi M (2013) Mitochondrial dysfunction and organophosphorus compounds. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 270:39–44. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2013.04.001
Karami-Mohajeri S, Nikfar S, Abdollahi M (2014) A systematic review on the nerve-muscle electrophysiology in human organophosphorus pesticide exposure. Hum Exp Toxicol 33:92–102. doi:10.1177/0960327113489047
Karmaus W, Kuehr J, Kruse H (2001) Infections and atopic disorders in childhood and organochlorine exposure. Arch Environ Health 56:485–492. doi:10.1080/00039890109602896
Karunanayake CP, Spinelli JJ, McLaughlin JR, Dosman JA, Pahwa P, McDuffie HH (2012) Hodgkin lymphoma and pesticides exposure in men: a Canadian case-control study. J Agromed 17:30–39. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2012.632726
Karunanayake CP, Dosman JA, Pahwa P (2013) Non-hodgkin’s lymphoma and work in agriculture: results of a two case-control studies in Saskatchewan, Canada. Indian J Occup Environ Med 17:114–121. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.130860
Keil AP, Daniels JL, Hertz-Picciotto I (2014) Autism spectrum disorder, flea and tick medication, and adjustments for exposure misclassification: the CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) case-control study. Environ Health 13:3. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-13-3
Khan FH, Ganesan P, Kumar S (2010) Y Chromosome microdeletion and altered sperm quality in human males with high concentration of seminal hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH). Chemosphere 80:972–977. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.05.047
Kim JS, Lim HS, Cho SI, Cheong HK, Lim MK (2003) Impact of agent orange exposure among Korean Vietnam veterans. Ind Health 41:149–157
Kim KS et al (2014) Associations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in visceral vs. subcutaneous adipose tissue with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. Chemosphere 94:151–157. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.09.066
Kielb C et al (2014) Maternal periconceptional occupational exposure to pesticides and selected musculoskeletal birth defects. Int J Hyg Environ Health 217:248–254. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.06.003
Kogevinas M et al (1995) Soft tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins: two nested case-control studies. Epidemiology 6:396–402
Koutros S et al (2009) Heterocyclic aromatic amine pesticide use and human cancer risk: results from the U.S. Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 124:1206–1212. doi:10.1002/ijc.24020
Koutros S et al (2010a) An update of cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study. J Occup Environ Med 52:1098–1105. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181f72b7c
Koutros S et al (2010b) Pesticide use modifies the association between genetic variants on chromosome 8q24 and prostate cancer. Cancer Res 70:9224–9233. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-1078
Koutros S et al (2011) Xenobiotic-metabolizing gene variants, pesticide use, and the risk of prostate cancer. Pharmacogenet Genomics 21:615–623. doi:10.1097/FPC.0b013e3283493a57
Koutros S et al (2013a) Risk of total and aggressive prostate cancer and pesticide use in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 177:59–74. doi:10.1093/aje/kws225
Koutros S et al (2013b) Genetic susceptibility loci, pesticide exposure and prostate cancer risk. PLoS One 8:e58195. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058195
Koutros S et al (2015) Occupational exposure to pesticides and bladder cancer risk. Int J Epidemiol. doi:10.1093/ije/dyv195
Kristensen P, Andersen A, Irgens LM, Bye AS, Sundheim L (1996) Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment. Int J Cancer 65:39–50. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19960103)65:1<39:AID-IJC8>3.0.CO;2-2
Kunkle B, Bae S, Singh KP, Roy D (2014) Increased risk of childhood brain tumors among children whose parents had farm-related pesticide exposures during pregnancy. JP J Biostat 11:89–101
Landgren O et al (2009) Pesticide exposure and risk of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance in the Agricultural Health Study. Blood 113:6386–6391. doi:10.1182/blood-2009-02-203471
Lee WJ et al (2004a) Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to chlorpyrifos in the Agricultural Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 96:1781–1789. doi:10.1093/jnci/djh324
Lee WJ, Hoppin JA, Blair A, Lubin JH, Dosemeci M, Sandler DP, Alavanja MC (2004b) Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to alachlor in the Agricultural Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 159:373–380
Lee WJ, Colt JS, Heineman EF, McComb R, Weisenburger DD, Lijinsky W, Ward MH (2005) Agricultural pesticide use and risk of glioma in Nebraska. US Occup Environ Med 62:786–792. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.020230
Lee DH, Lee IK, Song K, Steffes M, Toscano W, Baker BA, Jacobs DR Jr (2006) A strong dose-response relation between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and diabetes: results from the National Health and Examination Survey 1999–2002. Diabetes Care 29:1638–1644. doi:10.2337/dc06-0543
Lee DH, Lee IK, Jin SH, Steffes M, Jacobs DR Jr (2007a) Association between serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants and insulin resistance among nondiabetic adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2002. Diabetes Care 30:622–628. doi:10.2337/dc06-2190
Lee WJ, Sandler DP, Blair A, Samanic C, Cross AJ, Alavanja MC (2007b) Pesticide use and colorectal cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 121:339–346. doi:10.1002/ijc.22635
Lee DH, Steffes MW, Sjodin A, Jones RS, Needham LL, Jacobs DR Jr (2010) Low dose of some persistent organic pollutants predicts type 2 diabetes: a nested case-control study. Environ Health Perspect 118:1235–1242. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901480
Lee DH, Lind PM, Jacobs DR Jr, Salihovic S, van Bavel B, Lind L (2011a) Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in plasma predict development of type 2 diabetes in the elderly: the prospective investigation of the vasculature in Uppsala Seniors (PIVUS) study. Diabetes Care 34:1778–1784. doi:10.2337/dc10-2116
Lee DH, Steffes MW, Sjodin A, Jones RS, Needham LL, Jacobs DR Jr (2011b) Low dose organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls predict obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance among people free of diabetes. PLoS One 6:e15977. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015977
Lee DH, Lind L, Jacobs DR Jr, Salihovic S, van Bavel B, Lind PM (2012) Associations of persistent organic pollutants with abdominal obesity in the elderly: the Prospective Investigation of the Vasculature in Uppsala Seniors (PIVUS) study. Environ Int 40:170–178. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.07.010
Leiss JK, Savitz DA (1995) Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: a case-control study. Am J Public Health 85:249–252
Lerro CC et al (2015a) Organophosphate insecticide use and cancer incidence among spouses of pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Occup Environ Med 72:736–744. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-102798
Lerro CC et al (2015b) Use of acetochlor and cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 137:1167–1175. doi:10.1002/ijc.29416
Littorin M, Attewell R, Skerfving S, Horstmann V, Moller T (1993) Mortality and tumour morbidity among Swedish market gardeners and orchardists. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 65:163–169
Lo AC et al (2007) Lifestyle, occupational, and reproductive factors in relation to pancreatic cancer risk. Pancreas 35:120–129. doi:10.1097/mpa.0b013e318053e7d3
Lo AC, Soliman AS, Khaled HM, Aboelyazid A, Greenson JK (2010) Lifestyle, occupational, and reproductive factors and risk of colorectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 53:830–837. doi:10.1007/DCR.0b013e3181d320b1
Lope V et al (2008) Occupation, exposure to chemicals, sensitizing agents, and risk of multiple myeloma in Sweden. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:3123–3127. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0343
Luqman M, Javed MM, Daud S, Raheem N, Ahmad J, Khan AU (2014) Risk factors for lung cancer in the Pakistani population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 15:3035–3039
Ma X, Buffler PA, Gunier RB, Dahl G, Smith MT, Reinier K, Reynolds P (2002) Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia. Environ Health Perspect 110:955–960. doi:10.1289/ehp.02110955
MacLennan PA et al (2002) Cancer incidence among triazine herbicide manufacturing workers. J Occup Environ Med 44:1048–1058
Mahajan R, Blair A, Coble J, Lynch CF, Hoppin JA, Sandler DP, Alavanja MC (2007) Carbaryl exposure and incident cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 121:1799–1805. doi:10.1002/ijc.22836
Makelarski JA et al (2014) Maternal periconceptional occupational pesticide exposure and neural tube defects. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 100:877–886. doi:10.1002/bdra.23293
Malek AM et al (2014) Environmental and occupational risk factors for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a case-control study. Neurodegener Dis 14:31–38. doi:10.1159/000355344
Malekirad AA, Faghih M, Mirabdollahi M, Kiani M, Fathi A, Abdollahi M (2013) Neurocognitive, mental health, and glucose disorders in farmers exposed to organophosphorus pesticides. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 64(1):1–8
Manthripragada AD, Costello S, Cockburn MG, Bronstein JM, Ritz B (2010) Paraoxonase 1, agricultural organophosphate exposure, and Parkinson disease. Epidemiology 21:87–94. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c15ec6
Maryam Z et al (2015) Relationship between exposure to pesticides and occurrence of acute leukemia in Iran. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 16:239–244
Maqbool F, Mostafalou S, Bahadar H, Abdollahi M (2016) Review of endocrine disorders associated with environmental toxicants and possible involved mechanisms. Life Sci 145:265–273. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2015.10.022
Marks AR et al (2010) Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect 118:1768–1774. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002056
Matic MG et al (2014) Does occupational exposure to solvents and pesticides in association with glutathione S-transferase A1, M1, P1, and T1 polymorphisms increase the risk of bladder cancer? The Belgrade case-control study. PLoS One 9:e99448. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099448
McCann SJ et al (1998) The epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease in an Australian population. Neuroepidemiology 17:310–317
McDowell I, Hill G, Lindsay J (1994) The Canadian study of health and aging: risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease in Canada. Neurology 44:2073–2080
McDuffie HH et al (2001) Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and specific pesticide exposures in men: cross-Canada study of pesticides and health. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10:1155–1163
McGuire V, Longstreth WT Jr, Nelson LM, Koepsell TD, Checkoway H, Morgan MS, van Belle G (1997) Occupational exposures and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. A population-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 145:1076–1088
Meeker JD, Ryan L, Barr DB, Hauser R (2006) Exposure to nonpersistent insecticides and male reproductive hormones. Epidemiology 17:61–68
Meeker JD, Barr DB, Hauser R (2008) Human semen quality and sperm DNA damage in relation to urinary metabolites of pyrethroid insecticides. Hum Reprod 23:1932–1940. doi:10.1093/humrep/den242
Meeker JD, Barr DB, Hauser R (2009) Pyrethroid insecticide metabolites are associated with serum hormone levels in adult men. Reprod Toxicol 27:155–160. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.12.012
Mehrpour O, Karrari P, Zamani N, Tsatsakis AM, Abdollahi M (2014) Occupational exposure to pesticides and consequences on male semen and fertility: a review. Toxicol Lett 230:146–156. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.01.029
Meinert R, Kaatsch P, Kaletsch U, Krummenauer F, Miesner A, Michaelis J (1996) Childhood leukaemia and exposure to pesticides: results of a case-control study in northern Germany. Eur J Cancer 32A:1943–1948
Meinert R, Schuz J, Kaletsch U, Kaatsch P, Michaelis J (2000) Leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in childhood and exposure to pesticides: results of a register-based case-control study in Germany. Am J Epidemiol 151:639–646 (discussion 647–650)
Mellemgaard A, Engholm G, McLaughlin JK, Olsen JH (1994) Occupational risk factors for renal-cell carcinoma in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 20:160–165
Menegaux F et al (2006) Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood acute leukaemia. Occup Environ Med 63:131–134. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.023036
Meng G et al (2016a) Internal exposure levels of typical POPs and their associations with childhood asthma in Shanghai. China Environ Res 146:125–135. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.12.026
Meng G, Nie Z, Feng Y, Wu X, Yin Y, Wang Y (2016b) Typical halogenated persistent organic pollutants in indoor dust and the associations with childhood asthma in Shanghai, China. Environ Pollut 211:389–398. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.12.006
Merhi M, Raynal H, Cahuzac E, Vinson F, Cravedi JP, Gamet-Payrastre L (2007) Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of hematopoietic cancers: meta-analysis of case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 18:1209–1226. doi:10.1007/s10552-007-9061-1
Merletti F et al (2006) Occupational factors and risk of adult bone sarcomas: a multicentric case-control study in Europe. Int J Cancer 118:721–727. doi:10.1002/ijc.21388
Messaros BM et al (2009) Negative effects of serum p, p’-DDE on sperm parameters and modification by genetic polymorphisms. Environ Res 109:457–464. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2009.02.009
Metayer C, Colt JS, Buffler PA, Reed HD, Selvin S, Crouse V, Ward MH (2013) Exposure to herbicides in house dust and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 23:363–370. doi:10.1038/jes.2012.115
Meyer TE, Coker AL, Sanderson M, Symanski E (2007) A case-control study of farming and prostate cancer in African-American and Caucasian men. Occup Environ Med 64:155–160. doi:10.1136/oem.2006.027383
Meyer A, Alexandre PC, de Rezende Chrisman R, Markowitz SB, Koifman RJ, Koifman S (2011) Esophageal cancer among Brazilian agricultural workers: case-control study based on death certificates. Int J Hyg Environ Health 214:151–155. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.11.002
Michalakis M, Tzatzarakis MN, Kovatsi L, Alegakis AK, Tsakalof AK, Heretis I, Tsatsakis A (2014) Hypospadias in offspring is associated with chronic exposure of parents to organophosphate and organochlorine pesticides. Toxicol Lett 230:139–145. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.10.015
Miligi L, Costantini AS, Veraldi A, Benvenuti A, Vineis P (2006) Cancer and pesticides: an overview and some results of the Italian multicenter case-control study on hematolymphopoietic malignancies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1076:366–377. doi:10.1196/annals.1371.036
Mills PK, Yang R (2003) Prostate cancer risk in California farm workers. J Occup Environ Med 45:249–258
Mills PK, Yang R (2005) Breast cancer risk in Hispanic agricultural workers in California. Int J Occup Environ Health 11:123–131. doi:10.1179/oeh.2005.11.2.123
Mills PK, Yang RC (2007) Agricultural exposures and gastric cancer risk in Hispanic farm workers in California. Environ Res 104:282–289. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2006.11.008
Miranda-Contreras L et al (2013) Occupational exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides affects sperm chromatin integrity and reproductive hormone levels among Venezuelan farm workers. J Occup Health 55:195–203
Moisan F et al (2015) Association of Parkinson’s disease and its subtypes with agricultural pesticide exposures in men: a case–control study in France. Environ Health Perspect 123:1123–1129. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307970
Mokarizadeh A, Faryabi MR, Rezvanfar MA, Abdollahi M (2015) A comprehensive review of pesticides and the immune dysregulation: mechanisms, evidence and consequences. Toxicol Mech Methods 25:258–278. doi:10.3109/15376516.2015.1020182
Monge P et al (2007) Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and the risk of childhood leukemia in Costa Rica Scand. J Work Environ Health 33:293–303. doi:10.5271/sjweh.1146
Montgomery MP, Kame F, Saldana TM, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP (2008) Incident diabetes and pesticide exposure among licensed pesticide applicators: agricultural health study 1993–2003. Am J Epidemiol 167:1235–1246
Moore LE, Gold L, Stewart PA, Gridley G, Prince JR, Zahm SH (2005) Parental occupational exposures and Ewing’s sarcoma. Int J Cancer 114:472–478. doi:10.1002/ijc.20734
Morahan JM, Pamphlett R (2006) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and exposure to environmental toxins: an Australian case-control study. Neuroepidemiology 27:130–135. doi:10.1159/000095552
Morrison H, Savitz D, Semenciw R, Hulka B, Mao Y, Morison D, Wigle D (1993) Farming and prostate cancer mortality. Am J Epidemiol 137:270–280
Mostafalou S (2016) Persistent organic pollutants and concern over the link with insulin resistance related metabolic diseases. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 238:69–89. doi:10.1007/398_2015_5001
Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M (2012a) Concerns of environmental persistence of pesticides and human chronic diseases. Clin Exp Pharmacol 2:e108. doi:10.4172/2161-1459.1000e108
Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M (2012b) Current concerns on genotoxicity of pesticides. Int J Pharmacol 8:473–474. doi:10.3923/ijp.2012.473.474
Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M (2012c) The role of environmental pollution of pesticides in human diabetes. Int J Pharmacol 8:139–140. doi:10.3923/ijp.2012.139.140
Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M (2013) Pesticides and human chronic diseases: evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 268:157–177. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2013.01.025
Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M, Eghbal MA, Saeedi Kouzehkonani N (2012a) Protective effect of NAC against malathion-induced oxidative stress in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes. Adv Pharm Bull 2:79–88. doi:10.5681/apb.2012.011
Mostafalou S, Eghbal MA, Nili-Ahmadabadi A, Baeeri M, Abdollahi M (2012b) Biochemical evidence on the potential role of organophosphates in hepatic glucose metabolism toward insulin resistance through inflammatory signaling and free radical pathways. Toxicol Ind Health 28:840–851. doi:10.1177/0748233711425073
Mostafalou S, Karami-Mohajeri S, Abdollahi M (2013) Environmental and population studies concerning exposure to pesticides in iran: a comprehensive review. Iran Red Crescent Med J 15:e13896. doi:10.5812/ircmj.13896
Mulder YM, Drijver M, Kreis IA (1994) Case-control study on the association between a cluster of childhood haematopoietic malignancies and local environmental factors in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands. J Epidemiol Community Health 48:161–165
Multigner L et al (2010) Chlordecone exposure and risk of prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 28:3457–3462. doi:10.1200/JCO.2009.27.2153
Musicco M, Sant M, Molinari S, Filippini G, Gatta G, Berrino F (1988) A case-control study of brain gliomas and occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens: the risk to farmers. Am J Epidemiol 128:778–785
Narayan S, Liew Z, Paul K, Lee PC, Sinsheimer JS, Bronstein JM, Ritz B (2013) Household organophosphorus pesticide use and Parkinson’s disease. Int J Epidemiol 42:1476–1485. doi:10.1093/ije/dyt170
Navaranjan G et al (2013) Exposures to multiple pesticides and the risk of Hodgkin lymphoma in Canadian men. Cancer Causes Control 24:1661–1673. doi:10.1007/s10552-013-0240-y
Ndlovu V, Dalvie MA, Jeebhay MF (2014) Asthma associated with pesticide exposure among women in rural Western Cape of South Africa. Am J Ind Med 57:1331–1343. doi:10.1002/ajim.22384
Niehoff NM, Nichols HB, White AJ, Parks CG, D’Aloisio AA, Sandler DP (2016) Childhood and adolescent pesticide exposure and breast cancer risk. Epidemiology 27:326–333. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000451
Nili-Ahmadabadi A et al (2013) On the biochemical and molecular mechanisms by which malathion induces dysfunction in pancreatic islets in vivo and in vitro. Pestic Biochem Physiol 106:51–60. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2013.04.003
Nordstrom M, Hardell L, Magnuson A, Hagberg H, Rask-Andersen A (1998) Occupational exposures, animal exposure and smoking as risk factors for hairy cell leukaemia evaluated in a case-control study. Br J Cancer 77:2048–2052
Olshan AF et al (1993) Risk factors for Wilms tumor. Rep Natl Wilms Tumor Study Cancer 72:938–944
Ortega Jacome GP, Koifman RJ, Rego Monteiro GT, Koifman S (2010) Environmental exposure and breast cancer among young women in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil J Toxicol Environ Health A 73:858–865. doi:10.1080/15287391003744773
Orsi L et al. (2007) Occupation and lymphoid malignancies: results from a French case-control study. J Occup Environ Med 49:1339-1350. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181569a49
Pahwa P, Karunanayake CP, Spinelli JJ, Dosman JA, McDuffie HH (2009) Ethnicity and incidence of Hodgkin lymphoma in Canadian population. BMC Cancer 9:141. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-9-141
Pahwa M et al (2012a) Pesticide use, immunologic conditions, and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Canadian men in six provinces. Int J Cancer 131:2650–2659. doi:10.1002/ijc.27522
Pahwa P, Karunanayake CP, Dosman JA, Spinelli JJ, McDuffie HH, McLaughlin JR (2012b) Multiple myeloma and exposure to pesticides: a Canadian case-control study. J Agromed 17:40–50. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2012.632339
Pakzad M et al (2013) Sublethal exposures of diazinon alters glucose homostasis in Wistar rats: biochemical and molecular evidences of oxidative stress in adipose tissues. Pestic Biochem Physiol 105:57–61. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.11.008
Pamphlett R (2012) Exposure to environmental toxins and the risk of sporadic motor neuron disease: an expanded Australian case-control study. Eur J Neurol. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2012.03769.x
Pant N, Kumar R, Mathur N, Srivastava SP, Saxena DK, Gujrati VR (2007) Chlorinated pesticide concentration in semen of fertile and infertile men and correlation with sperm quality. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 23:135–139. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2006.07.012
Parada H Jr et al (2016) Organochlorine insecticides DDT and chlordane in relation to survival following breast cancer. Int J Cancer 138:565–575. doi:10.1002/ijc.29806
Parent ME, Desy M, Siemiatycki J (2009) Does exposure to agricultural chemicals increase the risk of prostate cancer among farmers? McGill J Med MJM Int Forum Adv Med Sci Stud 12:70–77
Parron T, Requena M, Hernandez AF, Alarcon R (2011) Association between environmental exposure to pesticides and neurodegenerative diseases. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 256:379–385. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2011.05.006
Patel CJ, Bhattacharya J, Butte AJ (2010) An environment-wide association study (EWAS) on type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLoS One 5:e10746. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010746
Perera FP et al (2003) Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect 111:201–205
Perrotta C et al (2012) Multiple Myeloma and lifetime occupation: results from the EPILYMPH study. J Occup Med Toxicol 7:25. doi:10.1186/1745-6673-7-25
Perrotta C et al (2013) Multiple myeloma and occupation: a pooled analysis by the International Multiple Myeloma Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol 37:300–305. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2013.01.008
Perry MJ, Venners SA, Barr DB, Xu X (2007) Environmental pyrethroid and organophosphorus insecticide exposures and sperm concentration. Reprod Toxicol 23:113–118. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2006.08.005
Perry MJ et al (2011) Organophosphorous pesticide exposures and sperm quality. Reprod Toxicol 31:75–79. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.08.006
Persson B, Fredriksson M, Olsen K, Boeryd B, Axelson O (1993) Some occupational exposures as risk factors for malignant lymphomas. Cancer 72:1773–1778
Pesatori AC, Sontag JM, Lubin JH, Consonni D, Blair A (1994) Cohort mortality and nested case-control study of lung cancer among structural pest control workers in Florida (United States). Cancer Causes Control 5:310–318
Petrovitch H et al (2002) Plantation work and risk of Parkinson disease in a population-based longitudinal study. Arch Neurol 59:1787–1792. doi:10.1001/archneur.59.11.1787
Philibert A, Schwartz H, Mergler D (2009) An exploratory study of diabetes in a First Nation community with respect to serum concentrations of p, p’-DDE and PCBs and fish consumption. Int J Environ Res Pub Health 6:3179–3189. doi:10.3390/ijerph6123179
Pogoda JM, Preston-Martin S (1997) Household pesticides and risk of pediatric brain tumors. Environ Health Perspect 105:1214–1220
Pournourmohammadi S, Farzami B, Ostad SN, Azizi E, Abdollahi M (2005) Effects of malathion subchronic exposure on rat skeletal muscle glucose metabolism. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 19(1):191–196
Provost D et al (2007) Brain tumours and exposure to pesticides: a case-control study in southwestern France. Occup Environ Med 64:509–514. doi:10.1136/oem.2006.028100
Pukkala E et al (2009) Occupation and cancer—follow-up of 15 million people in five Nordic countries. Acta Oncol 48:646–790. doi:10.1080/02841860902913546
Purdue MP, Hoppin JA, Blair A, Dosemeci M, Alavanja MC (2007) Occupational exposure to organochlorine insecticides and cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 120:642–649. doi:10.1002/ijc.22258
Qureshi MM et al (2006) Analysis of factors that modify susceptibility and rate of progression in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Amyotroph Lateral Scler 7:173–182. doi:10.1080/14660820600640596
Rafnsson V (2006) Cancer incidence among farmers exposed to lindane while sheep dipping. Scand J Work Environ Health 32:185–189
Rahimi R, Abdollahi M (2007) A review on the mechanisms involved in hyperglycemia induced by organophosphorus pesticides. Pestic Biochem Physiol 88:115–121. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2006.10.003
Ranjbar A, Pasalar P, Abdollahi M (2002) Induction of oxidative stress and acetylcholinesterase inhibition in organophosphorous pesticide manufacturing workers. Hum Exp Toxicol 21:179–182
Rauh VA et al (2006) Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics 118:e1845–e1859. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0338
Rauh V, Arunajadai S, Horton M, Perera F, Hoepner L, Barr DB, Whyatt R (2011) Seven-year neurodevelopmental scores and prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos, a common agricultural pesticide. Environ Health Perspect 119:1196–1201. doi:10.1289/ehp.1003160
Recio-Vega R, Ocampo-Gomez G, Borja-Aburto VH, Moran-Martinez J, Cebrian-Garcia ME (2008) Organophosphorus pesticide exposure decreases sperm quality: association between sperm parameters and urinary pesticide levels. J Appl Toxicol 28:674–680. doi:10.1002/jat.1321
Ren A et al (2011) Association of selected persistent organic pollutants in the placenta with the risk of neural tube defects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:12770–12775. doi:10.1073/pnas.1105209108
Reynolds P, Von Behren J, Gunier RB, Goldberg DE, Harnly M, Hertz A (2005) Agricultural pesticide use and childhood cancer in California. Epidemiology 16:93-100
Ribas-Fito N et al (2003) Breastfeeding, exposure to organochlorine compounds, and neurodevelopment in infants. Pediatrics 111:e580–e585
Richardson JR et al (2009) Elevated serum pesticide levels and risk of Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 66:870–875. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.89
Richardson JR et al (2014) Elevated serum pesticide levels and risk for Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurol 71:284–290. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.6030
Rignell-Hydbom A, Rylander L, Hagmar L (2007) Exposure to persistent organochlorine pollutants and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Hum Exp Toxicol 26:447–452. doi:10.1177/0960327107076886
Rignell-Hydbom A, Lidfeldt J, Kiviranta H, Rantakokko P, Samsioe G, Agardh CD, Rylander L (2009) Exposure to p, p’-DDE: a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. PLoS One 4:e7503. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007503
Ritz BR, Manthripragada AD, Costello S, Lincoln SJ, Farrer MJ, Cockburn M, Bronstein J (2009) Dopamine transporter genetic variants and pesticides in Parkinson’s disease. Environ Health Perspect 117:964–969. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800277
Roberts EM, English PB, Grether JK, Windham GC, Somberg L, Wolff C (2007) Maternal residence near agricultural pesticide applications and autism spectrum disorders among children in the California Central Valley. Environ Health Perspect 115:1482–1489. doi:10.1289/ehp.10168
Rocheleau CM, Romitti PA, Dennis LK (2009) Pesticides and hypospadias: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr Urol 5:17–24. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2008.08.006
Rodvall Y, Ahlbom A, Spannare B, Nise G (1996) Glioma and occupational exposure in Sweden, a case-control study. Occup Environ Med 53:526–532
Rosso AL, Hovinga ME, Rorke-Adams LB, Spector LG, Bunin GR, Children’s Oncology G (2008) A case–control study of childhood brain tumors and fathers’ hobbies: a Children’s Oncology Group study. Cancer Causes Control 19:1201–1207. doi:10.1007/s10552-008-9189-7
Rudant J et al (2007) Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood hematopoietic malignancies: the ESCALE study (SFCE). Environ Health Perspect 115:1787–1793. doi:10.1289/ehp.10596
Ruder AM, Yiin JH (2011) Mortality of US pentachlorophenol production workers through 2005. Chemosphere 83:851–861. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.02.064
Rull RP, Gunier R, Von Behren J, Hertz A, Crouse V, Buffler PA, Reynolds P (2009) Residential proximity to agricultural pesticide applications and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Environ Res 109:891-899 doi:10.1016/j.envres.2009.07.014
Rusiecki JA et al (2006) Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to metolachlor in the Agricultural Health Study. Int J Cancer 118:3118–3123. doi:10.1002/ijc.21758
Sagiv SK, Nugent JK, Brazelton TB, Choi AL, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM, Korrick SA (2008) Prenatal organochlorine exposure and measures of behavior in infancy using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). Environ Health Perspect 116:666–673. doi:10.1289/ehp.10553
Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM, Korrick SA (2010) Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children. Am J Epidemiol 171:593–601. doi:10.1093/aje/kwp427
Salam MT, Li YF, Langholz B, Gilliland FD, Children’s Health S (2004) Early-life environmental risk factors for asthma: findings from the Children’s Health Study. Environ Health Perspect 112:760–765
Salameh PR, Baldi I, Brochard P, Raherison C, Abi Saleh B, Salamon R (2003) Respiratory symptoms in children and exposure to pesticides. Eur Respir J 22:507–512
Salameh PR, Waked M, Baldi I, Brochard P, Saleh BA (2006) Chronic bronchitis and pesticide exposure: a case–control study in Lebanon. Eur J Epidemiol 21:681–688. doi:10.1007/s10654-006-9058-1
Saldana TM et al (2007) Pesticide exposure and self-reported gestational diabetes mellitus in the Agricultural Health Study. Diabetes Care 30:529–534
Salerno C, Sacco S, Panella M, Berchialla P, Vanhaecht K, Palin LA (2014) Cancer risk among farmers in the Province of Vercelli (Italy) from 2002 to 2005: an ecological study. Annali di igiene: medicina preventiva e di comunita 26:255–263. doi:10.7416/ai.2014.1983
Samanic C et al (2006) Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to dicamba in the agricultural health study. Environ Health Perspect 114:1521–1526
Samanic CM, De Roos AJ, Stewart PA, Rajaraman P, Waters MA, Inskip PD (2008) Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of adult brain tumors. Am J Epidemiol 167:976–985. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm401
Sanin LH, Carrasquilla G, Solomon KR, Cole DC, Marshall EJ (2009) Regional differences in time to pregnancy among fertile women from five Colombian regions with different use of glyphosate. J Toxicol Environ Health A 72:949–960. doi:10.1080/15287390902929691
Sathyanarayana S, Basso O, Karr CJ, Lozano P, Alavanja M, Sandler DP, Hoppin JA (2010) Maternal pesticide use and birth weight in the agricultural health study. J Agromed 15:127–136. doi:10.1080/10599241003622699
Savettieri G, Salemi G, Arcara A, Cassata M, Castiglione MG, Fierro B (1991) A case–control study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroepidemiology 10:242–245
Schinasi L, Leon ME (2014) Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide chemical groups and active ingredients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Pub Health 11:4449–4527. doi:10.3390/ijerph110404449
Schinasi LH et al (2015) Insecticide exposure and farm history in relation to risk of lymphomas and leukemias in the Women’s Health Initiative observational study cohort. Ann Epidemiol 25:803–810. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2015.08.002
Schroeder JC et al (2001) Agricultural risk factors for t(14;18) subtypes of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Epidemiology 12:701–709
Searles Nielsen S, Mueller BA, De Roos AJ, Viernes HM, Farin FM, Checkoway H (2005) Risk of brain tumors in children and susceptibility to organophosphorus insecticides: the potential role of paraoxonase (PON1). Environ Health Perspect 113:909–913
Searles Nielsen S, McKean-Cowdin R, Farin FM, Holly EA, Preston-Martin S, Mueller BA (2010) Childhood brain tumors, residential insecticide exposure, and pesticide metabolism genes. Environ Health Perspect 118:144–149. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901226
Segatto MM, Bonamigo RR, Hohmann CB, Muller KR, Bakos L, Mastroeni S, Fortes C (2015) Residential and occupational exposure to pesticides may increase risk for cutaneous melanoma: a case–control study conducted in the south of Brazil. Int J Dermatol 54:e527–e538. doi:10.1111/ijd.12826
Senthilselvan A, McDuffie HH, Dosman JA (1992) Association of asthma with use of pesticides. Results of a cross-sectional survey of farmers. Am Rev Respir Dis 146:884–887
Settimi L, Masina A, Andrion A, Axelson O (2003) Prostate cancer and exposure to pesticides in agricultural settings. Int J Cancer 104:458–461. doi:10.1002/ijc.10955
Shadnia S et al (2005) Evaluation of oxidative stress and genotoxicity in organophosphorus insecticide formulators. Hum Exp Toxicol 24:439–445
Shadnia S, Afsharivand S, Mostafalou S, Abdolahi A (2011) N-acetylcysteine a novel treatment for acute human organophosphate poisoning. Int J Pharmacol 7:732–735. doi:10.3923/ijp.2011.732.735
Sharma T, Jain S, Verma A, Sharma N, Gupta S, Arora VK, Dev Banerjee B (2013) Gene environment interaction in urinary bladder cancer with special reference to organochlorine pesticide: a case control study. Cancer Biomark Sect A Dis Mark 13:243–251. doi:10.3233/CBM-130346
Sharpe CR, Franco EL, de Camargo B, Lopes LF, Barreto JH, Johnsson RR, Mauad MA (1995) Parental exposures to pesticides and risk of Wilms’ tumor in Brazil. Am J Epidemiol 141:210–217
Shelton JF et al (2014) Neurodevelopmental disorders and prenatal residential proximity to agricultural pesticides: the CHARGE study. Environ Health Perspect 122:1103–1109. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307044
Shim YK, Mlynarek SP, van Wijngaarden E (2009) Parental exposure to pesticides and childhood brain cancer: U.S. Atlantic coast childhood brain cancer study. Environ Health Perspect 117:1002–1006. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800209
Shu XO, Gao YT, Brinton LA, Linet MS, Tu JT, Zheng W, Fraumeni JF, Jr. (1988) A population-based case-control study of childhood leukemia in Shanghai. Cancer 62:635-644
Shukla VK, Rastogi AN, Adukia TK, Raizada RB, Reddy DC, Singh S (2001) Organochlorine pesticides in carcinoma of the gallbladder: a case–control study. Eur J Cancer Prev Off J Eur Cancer Prev Organ 10:153–156
Sioen I et al (2013) Prenatal exposure to environmental contaminants and behavioural problems at age 7–8years. Environ Int 59:225–231. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.014
Smith EM, Hammonds-Ehlers M, Clark MK, Kirchner HL, Fuortes L (1997) Occupational exposures and risk of female infertility. J Occup Environ Med 39:138–147
Soldin OP et al. (2009) Pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia and exposure to pesticides. Ther Drug Monit 31:495-501. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181aae982
Son HK et al (2010) Strong associations between low-dose organochlorine pesticides and type 2 diabetes in Korea. Environ Int 36:410–414. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2010.02.012
Starling AP, Umbach DM, Kamel F, Long S, Sandler DP, Hoppin JA (2014) Pesticide use and incident diabetes among wives of farmers in the Agricultural Health Study. Occup Environ Med 71:629–635. doi:10.1136/oemed-2013-101659
Steenland K, Wesseling C, Roman N, Quiros I, Juncos JL (2013) Occupational pesticide exposure and screening tests for neurodegenerative disease among an elderly population in Costa Rica. Environ Res 120:96–101. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2012.08.014
Su FC, Goutman SA, Chernyak S, Mukherjee B, Callaghan BC, Batterman S, Feldman EL (2016) Association of environmental toxins with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. JAMA Neurol. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0594
Suarez-Lopez JR, Himes JH, Jacobs DR Jr, Alexander BH, Gunnar MR (2013) Acetylcholinesterase activity and neurodevelopment in boys and girls. Pediatrics 132:e1649–e1658. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-0108
Sunyer J et al (2010) DDE in mothers’ blood during pregnancy and lower respiratory tract infections in their infants. Epidemiology 21:729–735. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181e5ea96
Sunyer J et al (2006) Early exposure to dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, breastfeeding and asthma at age six. Clin Exp Allergy J Br Soc Allergy Clin Immunol 36:1236–1241. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02560.x
Sunyer J et al (2005) Prenatal dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and asthma in children. Environ Health Perspect 113:1787–1790
Swan SH et al (2003) Semen quality in relation to biomarkers of pesticide exposure. Environ Health Perspect 111:1478–1484
Tagiyeva N, Devereux G, Semple S, Sherriff A, Henderson J, Elias P, Ayres JG (2010) Parental occupation is a risk factor for childhood wheeze and asthma. Eur Respir J 35:987–993. doi:10.1183/09031936.00050009
Tang M, Chen K, Yang F, Liu W (2014a) Exposure to organochlorine pollutants and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 9:e85556. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085556
Tang M, Zhao M, Zhou S, Chen K, Zhang C, Liu W (2014b) Assessing the underlying breast cancer risk of Chinese females contributed by dietary intake of residual DDT from agricultural soils. Environ Int 73:208–215. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.001
Tanner CM et al (2009) Occupation and risk of parkinsonism: a multicenter case–control study. Arch Neurol 66:1106–1113. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.195
Tanner CM et al (2011) Rotenone, paraquat, and Parkinson’s disease. Environ Health Perspect 119:866–872. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002839
Tarvainen L, Kyyronen P, Kauppinen T, Pukkala E (2008) Cancer of the mouth and pharynx, occupation and exposure to chemical agents in Finland [in 1971–95]. Int J Cancer 123:653–659. doi:10.1002/ijc.23286
Teimouri F, Amirkabirian N, Esmaily H, Mohammadirad A, Aliahmadi A, Abdollahi M (2006) Alteration of hepatic cells glucose metabolism as a non-cholinergic detoxication mechanism in counteracting diazinon-induced oxidative stress. Hum Exp Toxicol 25:697–703
Teitelbaum SL, Gammon MD, Britton JA, Neugut AI, Levin B, Stellman SD (2007) Reported residential pesticide use and breast cancer risk on Long Island. N Y Am J Epidemiol 165:643–651. doi:10.1093/aje/kwk046
Thorpe N, Shirmohammadi A (2005) Herbicides and nitrates in groundwater of Maryland and childhood cancers: a geographic information systems approach. J Environ Sci Health Part C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev 23:261–278. doi:10.1080/10590500500235001
Tiido T, Rignell-Hydbom A, Jonsson B, Giwercman YL, Rylander L, Hagmar L, Giwercman A (2005) Exposure to persistent organochlorine pollutants associates with human sperm Y: X chromosome ratio. Hum Reprod 20:1903–1909. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh855
Tiido T et al (2006) Impact of PCB and p, p’-DDE contaminants on human sperm Y: X chromosome ratio: studies in three European populations and the Inuit population in Greenland. Environ Health Perspect 114:718–724
Torres-Sanchez L et al (2013) Prenatal p, p -DDE exposure and neurodevelopment among children 3.5–5 years of age. Environ Health Perspect 121:263–268. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205034
Tsai J, Kaye WE, Bove FJ (2006) Wilms’ tumor and exposures to residential and occupational hazardous chemicals. Int J Hyg Environ Health 209:57–64. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2005.09.003
Tual S, Clin B, Leveque-Morlais N, Raherison C, Baldi I, Lebailly P (2013) Agricultural exposures and chronic bronchitis: findings from the AGRICAN (AGRIculture and CANcer) cohort. Ann Epidemiol 23:539–545. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2013.06.005
Turner MC, Wigle DT, Krewski D (2011) Residential pesticides and childhood leukemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cien Saude Colet 16:1915–1931
Turyk M, Anderson H, Knobeloch L, Imm P, Persky V (2009a) Organochlorine exposure and incidence of diabetes in a cohort of Great Lakes sport fish consumers. Environ Health Perspect 117:1076–1082. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800281
Turyk M, Anderson HA, Knobeloch L, Imm P, Persky VW (2009b) Prevalence of diabetes and body burdens of polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and p, p’-diphenyldichloroethene in Great Lakes sport fish consumers. Chemosphere 75:674–679. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.12.035
Tyas SL, Manfreda J, Strain LA, Montgomery PR (2001) Risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a population-based, longitudinal study in Manitoba, Canada. Int J Epidemiol 30:590–597
Ukropec J et al (2010) High prevalence of prediabetes and diabetes in a population exposed to high levels of an organochlorine cocktail. Diabetologia 53:899–906. doi:10.1007/s00125-010-1683-2
Upson K, De Roos AJ, Thompson ML, Sathyanarayana S, Scholes D, Barr DB, Holt VL (2013) Organochlorine pesticides and risk of endometriosis: findings from a population-based case–control study. Environ Health Perspect 121:1319–1324. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306648
Vajdic CM et al (2007) Atopy, exposure to pesticides and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Int J Cancer 120:2271–2274. doi:10.1002/ijc.22602
Valcin M et al (2007) Chronic bronchitis among nonsmoking farm women in the agricultural health study. J Occup Environ Med 49:574–583. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3180577768
van Bemmel DM, Visvanathan K, Beane Freeman LE, Coble J, Hoppin JA, Alavanja MC (2008) S-ethyl-N,N-dipropylthiocarbamate exposure and cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study: a prospective cohort. Environ Health Perspect 116:1541–1546. doi:10.1289/ehp.11371
van Balen E et al (2006) Exposure to non-arsenic pesticides is associated with lymphoma among farmers in Spain. Occup Environ Med 63:663–668. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.024026
Van Leeuwen JA, Waltner-Toews D, Abernathy T, Smit B, Shoukri M (1999) Associations between stomach cancer incidence and drinking water contamination with atrazine and nitrate in Ontario (Canada) agroecosystems, 1987–1991. Int J Epidemiol 28:836–840
Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Lison D (2007) A systematic review of myeloid leukemias and occupational pesticide exposure. Cancer Causes Control 18:457–478. doi:10.1007/s10552-007-0122-2
Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Mertens C, Lison D (2008) Risk of leukaemia among pesticide manufacturing workers: a review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Environ Res 106:121–137. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2007.09.002
Van Maele-Fabry G, Lantin AC, Hoet P, Lison D (2011) Residential exposure to pesticides and childhood leukaemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 37:280–291. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2010.08.016
van Wijngaarden E, Stewart PA, Olshan AF, Savitz DA, Bunin GR (2003) Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and childhood brain cancer. Am J Epidemiol 157:989–997
Viel JF, Challier B, Pitard A, Pobel D (1998) Brain cancer mortality among French farmers: the vineyard pesticide hypothesis. Arch Environ Health 53:65–70. doi:10.1080/00039899809605690
Viel JF, Floret N, Deconinck E, Focant JF, De Pauw E, Cahn JY (2011) Increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and serum organochlorine concentrations among neighbors of a municipal solid waste incinerator. Environ Int 37:449–453. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2010.11.009
Viel JF et al. (2015) Pyrethroid insecticide exposure and cognitive developmental disabilities in children: The PELAGIE mother-child cohort. Environ Int 82:69–75. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2015.05.009
Vinson F, Merhi M, Baldi I, Raynal H, Gamet-Payrastre L (2011) Exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood cancer: a meta-analysis of recent epidemiological studies. Occup Environ Med 68:694–702. doi:10.1136/oemed-2011-100082
VoPham T et al (2015) Pesticide exposure and hepatocellular carcinoma risk: a case–control study using a geographic information system (GIS) to link SEER-Medicare and California pesticide data. Environ Res 143:68–82. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.09.027
Wagner-Schuman M et al (2015) Association of pyrethroid pesticide exposure with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a nationally representative sample of U.S. children. Environ Health 14:44. doi:10.1186/s12940-015-0030-y
Waller SA, Paul K, Peterson SE, Hitti JE (2010) Agricultural-related chemical exposures, season of conception, and risk of gastroschisis in Washington State. Am J Obstet Gynecol 202(241):e241–e246. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2010.01.023
Wang A, Costello S, Cockburn M, Zhang X, Bronstein J, Ritz B (2011a) Parkinson’s disease risk from ambient exposure to pesticides. Eur J Epidemiol 26:547–555. doi:10.1007/s10654-011-9574-5
Wang J, Zhu Y, Cai X, Yu J, Yang X, Cheng J (2011b) Abnormal glucose regulation in pyrethroid pesticide factory workers. Chemosphere 82:1080–1082. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.10.065
Weisskopf MG, Morozova N, O’Reilly EJ, McCullough ML, Calle EE, Thun MJ, Ascherio A (2009) Prospective study of chemical exposures and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 80:558–561. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2008.156976
WHO (2015) World cancer report 2014. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/
Whyatt RM et al (2004) Prenatal insecticide exposures and birth weight and length among an urban minority cohort. Environ Health Perspect 112:1125–1132
Wigle DT, Turner MC, Krewski D (2009) A systematic review and meta-analysis of childhood leukemia and parental occupational pesticide exposure. Environ Health Perspect 117:1505–1513. doi:10.1289/ehp.0900582
Wiklund K (1983) Swedish agricultural workers. A group with a decreased risk of cancer. Cancer 51:566–568
Wu H, Bertrand KA, Choi AL, Hu FB, Laden F, Grandjean P, Sun Q (2013) Persistent organic pollutants and type 2 diabetes: a prospective analysis in the nurses’ health study and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect 121:153–161. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205248
Xia Y et al (2008) The relation between urinary metabolite of pyrethroid insecticides and semen quality in humans. Fertil Steril 89:1743–1750. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.05.049
Xu X, Nembhard WN, Kan H, Kearney G, Zhang ZJ, Talbott EO (2011) Urinary trichlorophenol levels and increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among US school-aged children. Occup Environ Med 68:557–561. doi:10.1136/oem.2010.063859
Xu X, Nembhard WN, Kan H, Becker A, Talbott EO (2012) Residential pesticide use is associated with children’s respiratory symptoms. J Occup Environ Med 54:1281–1287. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e31825cb6ae
Yang JZ, Wang ZX, Ma LH, Shen XB, Sun Y, Hu DW, Sun LX (2015) The organochlorine pesticides residues in the invasive ductal breast cancer patients. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 40:698–703. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2015.07.007
Yi SW, Hong JS, Ohrr H, Yi JJ (2014) Agent Orange exposure and disease prevalence in Korean Vietnam veterans: the Korean veterans health study. Environ Res 133:56–65. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2014.04.027
Young JG et al (2005) Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and abnormal reflexes in neonates. Neurotoxicology 26:199–209. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2004.10.004
Yu Y, Su FC, Callaghan BC, Goutman SA, Batterman SA, Feldman EL (2014) Environmental risk factors and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): a case–control study of ALS in Michigan. PLoS One 9:e101186. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101186
Yu CJ et al (2016) Increased risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder associated with exposure to organophosphate pesticide in Taiwanese children. Andrology. doi:10.1111/andr.12183
Yucra S, Gasco M, Rubio J, Gonzales GF (2008) Semen quality in Peruvian pesticide applicators: association between urinary organophosphate metabolites and semen parameters. Environ Health 7:59. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-7-59
Zahm SH, Weisenburger DD, Babbitt PA, Saal RC, Vaught JB, Cantor KP, Blair A (1990) A case–control study of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in eastern Nebraska. Epidemiology 1:349–356
Zendehdel R, Tayefeh-Rahimian R, Kabir A (2014) Chronic exposure to chlorophenol related compounds in the pesticide production workplace and lung cancer: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 15:5149–5153
Zhang Y et al (2014) Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and neurobehavioral development of neonates: a birth cohort study in Shenyang, China. PLoS One 9:e88491. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088491
Zhang Y et al (2015) Household pesticide exposure and the risk of childhood acute leukemia in Shanghai, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 22:11755–11763 doi:10.1007/s11356-015-4362-5
Zhong Y, Rafnsson V (1996) Cancer incidence among Icelandic pesticide users. Int J Epidemiol 25:1117–1124
Zorzon M, Capus L, Pellegrino A, Cazzato G, Zivadinov R (2002) Familial and environmental risk factors in Parkinson’s disease: a case–control study in north-east Italy. Acta Neurol Scand 105:77–82. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0404.2002.1o040.x
Acknowledgments
This invited paper is the outcome of an in-house financially non-supported study. The authors wish to thank Iran National Science Foundation (INSF).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mostafalou, S., Abdollahi, M. Pesticides: an update of human exposure and toxicity. Arch Toxicol 91, 549–599 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1849-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1849-x